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Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles, Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles Young Drive South, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Global Health, Division of Parasitic Diseases & Malaria, Parasitic Diseases Branch, 1600 Clifton Road Atlanta, GA 30329-4027, USA
Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles, Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles Young Drive South, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles, Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles Young Drive South, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles, Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles Young Drive South, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles, Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles Young Drive South, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles, Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles Young Drive South, Box 951772, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
There were an estimated 4823 severe malaria-related hospitalizations from 2000 to 2014 in the US.
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Pf accounted for most of the severe malaria-related hospitalizations, followed by Pv, Po, and Pm.
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Severe malaria was most common among inpatients who were male, Black, and aged 45–64 years.
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We found associations with severe malaria or specific complications for age, sex, and HIV.
Abstract
Background
Factors associated with the development of severe malaria have not been well described for cases occurring in the United States (US).
Methods
Severe malaria hospitalizations data from the 2000–2014 Nationwide Inpatient Sample were analyzed. Frequencies were reported by demographic, clinical, species, financial, geographic, and institutional characteristics, and trends and disparities were identified. Logistic regression models were used to identify potential predictors for severe disease among those with malaria.
Results
From 2000 to 2014, there were an estimated 4823 severe malaria cases, representing 21.9% of all malaria-related hospitalizations, including 182 severe malaria deaths. Severe malaria was most common among inpatients who were male, Black, aged 45–64 years, and hospitalized in the South Atlantic division of the US. Older age was associated with higher odds of severe malaria, cerebral malaria, ARDS, severe anemia, and renal failure. Males had higher odds of developing renal failure and jaundice, while females had higher odds of developing severe anemia. HIV infection was associated with increased odds of severe malaria, severe anemia, and renal failure.
Conclusion
Primary and secondary prevention measures, such as pre-travel consultations, chemoprophylaxis, and early diagnosis and treatment, should be emphasized and improved among high-risk prospective travelers to malaria endemic countries.
Malaria is the leading cause of death by parasitic disease in the world and remains one of the most important and intractable global public health problems. The WHO estimated that 212 million cases of malaria, and 429,000 deaths due to malaria occurred in 2015 [
Global, regional, and national incidence and mortality for HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.
]. Malaria is caused by infection with the protozoan agents of the genus Plasmodium. Several species of Plasmodium (P.falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi) are known to affect humans, with P. falciparum causing the most morbidity and the vast majority of the mortality. Transmission typically occurs through the bite from an infective female Anopheles mosquito. These competent vectors have widespread distribution throughout the world, including the United States [
Clinical manifestations can range from fever, shaking chills, muscle pains, and other non-specific symptoms in uncomplicated malaria, to jaundice, acute renal failure, severe anemia, cerebral malaria, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and other serious complications in severe malaria, which can be rapidly fatal. Malaria during pregnancy is associated with many adverse outcomes, including maternal mortality, maternal anemia, low birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, and fetal loss. Malaria can progress to severe and fatal disease, even with prompt treatment [
The CDC publishes an annual malaria report that discusses reported cases of malaria in the US. This surveillance data indicates that the number of imported uncomplicated malaria and severe malaria cases has steadily increased over the last few decades in the US [
] where previously endemic malaria has been eliminated. These cases mostly occur among returned travelers, and to a lesser extent, among foreign visitors or immigrants, from malaria-endemic countries [
], the factors associated with the development of severe disease due to malaria infection have not been well described for cases occurring in the US. A stratified analysis of the specific malaria complications has rarely been conducted, and is of interest since each complication may have different risk factors, require different types and levels of resources and expertise, and result in different outcomes. In the current study, we analyzed US hospital data to examine the patient characteristics and to identify potential risk factors for severe malaria, which could be used to target interventions for high-risk travelers to improve health care or the clinical outcomes of malaria in the US. This paper focused on severe malaria follows our previous paper on the overall malaria hospitalization burden [
Hospital discharge records from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) were used for analysis of severe malaria-related hospitalizations in the US during 2000–2014. The NIS is sampled from the State Inpatient Databases (SID), and is part of the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) sponsored by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). The NIS includes data on sociodemographics, diagnosis type, disease severity, length of stay, co-diagnoses, institutional characteristics, and total charges. Details on the sampling scheme have been described elsewhere [
Cases of malaria in the NIS from 2000 to 2014 were identified from discharge records in the NIS by the primary and secondary diagnoses, which used the International Classification of Diseases, 9th revision (ICD-9) codes of 084.0–084.9 (084.0: falciparum malaria, malignant tertian; 084.1: vivax malaria, benign tertian; 084.2: malariae, quartan; 084.3: ovale malaria; 084.4: other malaria; 084.5: mixed malaria; 084.6: malaria, unspecified; 084.7: induced malaria; 084.8: Blackwater fever; 084.9: other pernicious complications of malaria) and of 647.4 (malaria complicating pregnancy, childbirth, or puerperium) [
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Classification of diseases, functioning, and disability. Conversion table. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd/icd9cm.htm. [Accessed 31 March 2017].
]. Since no specific drugs used or laboratory results are available in the NIS, we were unable to use parasitemia ≥5% or treatment for severe malaria (i.e. artesunate or quinidine) as specified in the CDC definition [
]. Malaria complications were identified using ICD-9 codes and HCUP Clinical Classification Software (CCS) categories, which are clinically meaningful categories of ICD-9 codes [
]. Discharge records listing a malaria diagnosis along with one or more of the following criteria were considered as severe malaria cases: 1. Neurologic symptoms (cerebral malaria)– CCS codes 82, 83, 85, or 95 (paralysis, epilepsy, convulsions, alteration of consciousness, coma, stupor, brain damage, other nervous system disorders); 2. Renal failure– CCS code 157; 3. Severe anemia– CCS codes 59 (deficiency anemia), with procedural CCS code 222 (blood transfusion); 4. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)– CCS code 131; 5. Jaundice– ICD-9 code 782.4; or 6. Exchange transfusion– ICD-9 code 99.01. Malaria-related hospitalizations with an in-hospital death were also considered as severe malaria cases.
All-Patient Refined Diagnosis Related Groups (APR-DRG) severity and risk of mortality variables, which measure the extent of physiologic decompensation or organ system loss of function, and the likelihood of death (based on the combinations of principal diagnoses, secondary diagnoses, non-operating room procedures, operating room procedures, and age) [
], were additionally used to describe the uncomplicated malaria and severe malaria cases.
Data analyses were performed using SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA) with survey procedures that accounted for the complex sampling design. National estimates of the frequency by different characteristics were produced using NIS discharge-level sample weights, which are provided by HCUP. Rates per 1 million US population were calculated using bridged-race US census population estimates [
United States Department of Health and Human Services (US DHHS), Centers for disease control and prevention (CDC), national center for health statistics (NCHS), bridged-race population estimates, United States July 1st resident population by state, county, age, sex, bridged-race, and hispanic origin. Compiled from 1990-1999 bridged-race intercensal population estimates (released by NCHS on 7/26/2004); revised bridged-race 2000-2009 intercensal population estimates (released by NCHS on 10/26/2012); and bridged-race Vintage 2014 (2010-2014) postcensal population estimates (released by NCHS on 6/30/2015). Available on CDC WONDER Online Database. Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/bridged-race-v2014.html on Apr 15, 2016 1:00:23 PM
]. Trends in the number of severe malaria hospitalizations over the study period were assessed by negative binomial regression offset by the population.
Separate multiple logistic regression models were used to identify potential predictors for severe malaria, and for each severe malaria defining complication among malaria-related hospitalizations in the US from 2000 to 2014. Variables and covariates were selected based on associations documented in the literature, which included sociodemographic, financial, and institutional characteristics, and some pre-existing conditions, such as HIV [
From 2000 to 2014, there were 22,029 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 21,001–23,057) malaria-related hospitalizations, of which an estimated 4823 (95% CI: 4485–5161) were severe malaria hospitalizations (Table 1, Fig. 1), and 182 (95% CI: 123–241) were severe malaria deaths. Severe malaria hospitalizations occurred at a rate of 1.07 (95% CI: 0.99–1.14) per 1 million population (Table 2, Fig. 1). Severe malaria accounted for 21.9% of all malaria-related hospitalizations in the US over the study period, with the percent of all malaria-related hospitalizations that were severe cases increasing from 11.2% in 2000 to 34.4% in 2014. The rate of severe malaria overall (ptrend ≤ 0.05, Fig. 1) and of each specific malaria complication (all ptrend ≤ 0.05), except death, increased over the study period.
Table 1Demographics of severe malaria hospitalizations in the US, by complication, 2000–2014.
Note: All numbers are national estimates based on weighted frequencies. Numbers and proportions may not sum to total or 100% due to rounding and missing values.
Figure 1Number of severe malaria hospitalizations in the US, by year, 2000–2014. Note: All numbers are national estimates based on weighted frequencies.
Some (25.6%) patients developed multiple complications. The most frequent malaria complication was renal failure, followed by severe anemia, cerebral malaria, ARDS, jaundice, and death (Table 1, Table 2). Those with ARDS had the highest risk of death (13.1%), accounting for 64.8% of all severe malaria-related hospitalizations ending in death (Table 2). Controlling for demographic covariates (age, sex, and race), having ARDS (OR = 32.25, 95% CI: 14.62–71.16), renal failure (OR = 9.57, 95% CI: 4.24–21.62), cerebral malaria (OR = 7.00, 95% CI: 2.90–16.85), or severe anemia (OR = 2.97, 95% CI: 1.22–7.21) was associated with increased odds of death.
Species
Infecting Plasmodium species information was known for 52.9% of severe malaria-related hospitalizations. While P. falciparum accounted for 69.7% of uncomplicated malaria-related hospitalizations, it accounted for 83.3% of severe malaria-related hospitalizations with known species information, followed by P. vivax (13.8%), P. ovale (2.4%), and P. malariae (1.5%). A similar pattern held for all of the severe malaria complications (Fig. 2). Temporal increases in the rates of severe malaria for infections with P. falciparum (ptrend ≤ 0.01) were observed.
Figure 2Uncomplicated and severe malaria hospitalizations in the US, by infecting species, 2000–2014. Note: Based on malaria-related hospitalizations with known infecting species. Totals may exceed 100% due to mixed infections.
The number of and rate severe malaria-related hospitalizations, and each complication except jaundice, increased with age, peaking at 45–64 years (Table 1, Table 2). Older age was associated with severe malaria, malaria with renal failure, ARDS, cerebral malaria, severe anemia, and fatal malaria (Table 3). Temporal increases in the rates of severe malaria were observed for all age groups (ptrend ≤ 0.01).
Table 3Multiple logistic regression analysis of severe malaria in the US, by complication, 2000–2014.
Severe malaria-related hospitalization generally occurred more often among males, and the rate disparity was greatest for those with jaundice and renal failure. Malaria with severe anemia was an exception, and was more common among females (Table 1, Table 2). Of the 107 (6.1% of female cases) severe malaria hospitalizations among pregnant women, 88 (82.2%) had severe anemia (Table 1). Males had higher odds of developing renal failure and jaundice, while females had higher odds of developing severe anemia (Table 3). Temporal increases in the rates of severe malaria for both males and females were observed (ptrend ≤ 0.01).
Blacks were the most common race group, accounting for over half (53.3%) of severe malaria-related hospitalizations with known race information, followed by Whites, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics (Table 1). Blacks also had the highest rates of severe malaria overall compared to the other race groups (Table 2). Temporal increases in the rates of severe malaria for Whites, Blacks, and Asian/Pacific Islanders (ptrend ≤ 0.01) were observed. Whites had nearly twice (OR = 1.96, 95% CI: 1.32–2.94) the odds of developing severe malaria compared to Hispanics after controlling for all other covariates (Table 3).
Clinical
Malaria was the primary diagnosis (73.7%) for the majority of severe malaria-related hospitalizations, though the proportion varied widely by complication. Those with jaundice (91.4%) were most likely, while those with cerebral malaria (54.6%) were least likely to have a primary malaria diagnosis (Table 4). The most common primary diagnoses among severe malaria cases with a secondary malaria diagnosis were unspecified septicemia (21.0%) and other specified septicemia (6.5%).
Table 4Clinical characteristics of severe malaria hospitalizations in the US, by complication, 2000–2014.
Note: All numbers are national estimates based on weighted frequencies. Numbers and proportions may not sum to total or 100% due to rounding and missing values.
a Small cells (<10) were suppressed to preserve confidentiality.
b All patient refined diagnosis related group (APRDRG) severity of illness and risk of mortality based on 2002–2014 data only.
HIV infection was reported in 2.8%, type II diabetes in 10.4%, and essential hypertension in 20.4% of severe malaria hospitalizations (Table 4). Controlling for all other covariates, HIV infection increased the odds of severe malaria, malaria with severe anemia, and malaria with renal failure. Type II diabetes and essential hypertension were not associated with severe malaria or any severe malaria complication (Table 3).
Most (77.6%) patients with severe malaria had major or extreme physiologic decompensation or organ system loss of function, and about half (48.9%) had a major or extreme risk of dying. Nearly all patients with ARDS had major or extreme loss of organ system function (98.7%) and major or extreme risk of dying (95.1%) (Table 4).
The mean length of stay for severe malaria-related hospitalizations was 7.8 days. Those with ARDS had the longest hospital stays (16.0 days), while those with jaundice had the shortest hospital stays (4.6 days) on average (Table 4).
Financial
Severe malaria-related hospitalizations accounted for $276,657,680 in hospital charges from 2000 to 2014, with a mean hospital charge of $58,500. The mean charge varied greatly among complications, ranging from a mean of $32,087 for malaria with jaundice, to $155,873 for malaria with ARDS (Table 5). Malaria patients who were self-payers or had Medicaid were at increased odds of having renal failure, and those who had Medicaid were at increased odds of having severe anemia, compared to those with Medicare (Table 3) (Note: Medicaid is a publicly funded health insurance program for low-income and needy people. Medicare is a publicly funded health insurance program for people who are 65 or older, certain younger people with disabilities, and people with end-stage renal disease).
Table 5Financial characteristics of severe malaria hospitalizations in the US, by complication, 2000–2014.
Note: All numbers are national estimates based on weighted frequencies. Numbers and proportions may not sum to total or 100% due to rounding and missing values.
a Small cells (<10) were suppressed to preserve confidentiality.
b Adjusted for inflation to 2015 US dollars.
c Income category is based on median household income by national quartiles for patient zip code.
The South Atlantic division of the US had the highest numbers of severe malaria-related hospitalizations, followed by the Mid-Atlantic, Pacific, West South Central, East North Central, New England, Mountain, West North Central, and East South Central divisions (Table 6). Controlling for all other covariates, those in the Northeastern and Midwestern region were associated with lower odds of severe malaria, compared to the patients treated in the Western region of the US. Those in the Northeastern region had lower odds of cerebral malaria and ARDS (Table 3).
Table 6Institutional characteristics of severe malaria hospitalizations in the US, by complication, 2000–2014.
New England: ME, NH, VT, MA, RI, CT; Mid-Atlantic: NY, PA, NJ; East North Central: WI, MI, IL, IN, OH; West North Central: MO, ND, SD, NE, KS, MN, IA; South Atlantic: DE, MD, DC, VA, WV, NC, SC, GA, FL; East South Central: KY, TN, MS, AL; West South Central: OK, TX, AR, LA; Mountain: ID, MT, WY, NV, UT, CO, AZ, NM; Pacific: AK, WA, OR, CA, HI.
Note: All numbers are national estimates based on weighted frequencies. Numbers and proportions may not sum to total or 100% due to rounding and missing values.
a Small cells (<10) were suppressed to preserve confidentiality.
b New England: ME, NH, VT, MA, RI, CT; Mid-Atlantic: NY, PA, NJ; East North Central: WI, MI, IL, IN, OH; West North Central: MO, ND, SD, NE, KS, MN, IA; South Atlantic: DE, MD, DC, VA, WV, NC, SC, GA, FL; East South Central: KY, TN, MS, AL; West South Central: OK, TX, AR, LA; Mountain: ID, MT, WY, NV, UT, CO, AZ, NM; Pacific: AK, WA, OR, CA, HI.
Patients with a severe malaria diagnosis were more often hospitalized in urban areas (95.9%) (Table 6). Rural hospital location was associated with lower odds of severe malaria, particularly for renal failure (Table 3).
Discussion
Severe and fatal malaria exacts a considerable, and increasing, burden in the US. This burden may be greater than previously recognized, as the number and proportion of severe malaria cases (and deaths) of all malaria cases identified from the NIS was higher than those reported in the malaria surveillance system. For example, in 2013, there were an estimated 400 (30.8%) severe malaria-related hospitalizations, compared to 270 (15.6%) reported severe cases [
], the number of complications and co-diagnoses of severe malaria cases has gradually increased in recent years, perhaps in part due to the general increase in more complete reporting of co-diagnoses over the years.
Based on cases with known species information, the predominant infecting species for severe malaria-related hospitalizations was P. falciparum, which is consistent with its well-documented virulence [
]. In particular, although cerebral malaria is a severe clinical manifestation of malaria traditionally associated almost exclusively with P. falciparum [
], 17.7% of cerebral malaria hospitalizations were attributed to P. vivax mono-infection in this study. This adds to the growing body of evidence that P. vivax may cause serious disease including cerebral malaria [
], which may be especially relevant for diagnosis of returning travelers from P. vivax-endemic Latin America or Asia presenting with fever and neurological symptoms. Additional laboratory training on species identification and quantification through malaria microscopy [
] may be needed, as only about half of severe malaria hospitalizations had species information. The CDC currently recommends species confirmation by PCR after microscopic diagnosis for all malaria cases in the US [
Older age was found to increase the risk of ARDS, cerebral malaria, severe anemia, and renal failure; male sex was found to increase the risk of renal failure and jaundice; and female sex was found to increase the risk of severe anemia among patients with malaria in this study, which is consistent with previous reports [
Age as a risk factor for severe manifestations and fatal outcome of falciparum malaria in European patients: observations from TropNetEurop and SIMPID Surveillance Data.
]. Although we observed an association between race and severe malaria, race may serve as a proxy for other risk factors that may better explain the variation in Plasmodium infection and the subsequent development of severe malaria. Such factors may include infecting species and level of malaria transmission at the travel destinations, patient travel history, chemoprophylaxis use, purpose of travel, genetic profiles, underlying medical conditions, and perceived immune status.
A large proportion of severe malaria cases did not list malaria as the primary diagnosis, particularly among fatal and cerebral malaria cases, and a large proportion listed unspecified or other septicemia as the primary diagnosis. This demonstrates the non-specific nature of malarial illness and a potentially substantial lack of clinical suspicion, which may be addressed with increased awareness and training on malaria among physicians.
The proportion of severe malaria patients with HIV infection (2.8%) was much higher than that of the hospitalized (0.6%) and general (0.3%) [
] populations. Having HIV infection as a diagnosis was associated with increased odds of severe malaria in this study, which is consistent with the findings of other studies [
]. HIV infection may compromise the immune response to Plasmodium, resulting in higher parasitemia and more severe disease.
The proportion of severe malaria patients with type II diabetes (10.4%) was lower than that of the hospitalized population (15.8%) and similar to that of the general population (9.3%) [
], while the proportion of severe malaria patients with essential hypertension (20.4%) was lower than that of the hospitalized (31.9%) and general (29.1%) [
]. However, we did not find type II diabetes or essential hypertension to be associated with severe malaria or any specific complication of malaria.
Severe malaria hospitalizations accounted for a large and unnecessary economic burden, which could largely be prevented through use of effective personal protective measures against mosquitoes and adherence to proper chemoprophylaxis. Although chemoprophylaxis is often not covered by insurance, which could deter to its use, the cost disparity warrants consideration among prospective travelers.
Severe malaria cases may be referred from smaller, rural hospitals to larger urban hospitals, which tend to offer a higher level of care. This may explain the observed lower odds of renal failure at rural hospitals. Differences in medical practice patterns or unmeasured patient characteristics may have led to differences in recognition and management of malaria by region.
Limitations
The use of NIS in this study has many strengths, including its large and representative sample size to study rare diseases. However, some limitations of this study should be considered. The national estimates from the NIS using ICD codes are subject to coding and sampling errors, and the actual number of severe malaria-related hospitalizations may be different from that reported here. Underestimates may result from misdiagnoses, in which malaria may not have been considered as a diagnosis and a travel history was not elicited due to disease rarity, and low patient, clinician, and laboratory personnel experience with malaria in the US. Without information on specific medications used or laboratory results, the diagnoses and species information based on ICD codes cannot be validated. Overestimates may result from using ICD codes reported in discharge records, which includes documentation of all diagnoses and possibly some incorrect diagnoses based on clinical suspicion or rapid diagnostic tests alone without laboratory confirmation or misinterpretation of inappropriate diagnostic tests (e.g., ELISA antibody test), as compared to the more strict definitions used by the CDC surveillance system. Pre-existing conditions or other conditions used to define cases but that are not due to malaria listed on the discharge records may also result in misclassification of severe malaria cases and its distribution of case characteristics. For example, pre-existing epilepsy or other neurologic disease among uncomplicated P. vivax, P. ovale or P. malariae cases may result in misclassification to severe malaria, and lead to the higher than expected numbers of severe malaria cases by those species. The high proportion of clinically imprecise ICD diagnosis codes, such as those corresponding to conditions that can have a wide clinical spectrum (e.g., non-traumatic acute kidney injury), and changes in the criteria for certain conditions over time, may also preclude consistent and accurate identification of relevant clinical manifestations for classifying cases and co-morbidities. Costs of severe malaria hospitalizations may be underestimated, as reported hospital charges do not include physician fees and other ancillaries, and do not account for other aspects of the economic burden such as lost productivity and other social costs. Since the NIS is discharge record and not patient based, hospital transfers and recrudescent malaria cases that result in re-hospitalizations may lead to multiple counting. Imputation of missing variables was not feasible due to the large size of the NIS and limited computing power. Random and intentional (state-level suppression) missing data on race and sensitive conditions (e.g. HIV) [
] is possible in the assessment of associations with severe malaria in this study since both severe malaria and the potential predictors of interest may affect the hospitalization rate. In addition, other potential risk factors of interest, including time to presentation, laboratory results, pre-travel consultation, country of origin, travel history, destination and purpose of travel, immigration and immunity status, and vector avoidance and chemoprophylaxis use were not available in NIS data to determine their associations with severe malaria.
This study provides insight to the burden of severe malaria and the specific malaria complications in the US, and is generalizable to US travelers, foreign visitors, and immigrants. In light of the increases in international travel, primary and secondary prevention measures need to be emphasized in high-risk groups. Clinicians should include malaria in the differential diagnosis when assessing the etiology of unexplained fever or severe infection, and elicit travel history at initial presentation for prompt diagnosis and initiation of appropriate treatment to reduce the risk of disease progression [
]. Lastly, continued funding for communicable disease control systems and for tropical medicine research efforts will also be important in combating the malaria problem.
Ethics
This research did not involve human subjects, and ethical approval was not required or obtained.
Authorship statement
All authors made substantial contributions to all of the following: (1) the conception and design of the study, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data, (2) drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content, (3) final approval of the version to be submitted.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Provenance and peer review
Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Paul Arguin for reviewing this manuscript.
References
World Malaria Report 2016
World health organization.
World Health Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland2016
Global, regional, and national incidence and mortality for HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Classification of diseases, functioning, and disability. Conversion table. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd/icd9cm.htm. [Accessed 31 March 2017].
United States Department of Health and Human Services (US DHHS), Centers for disease control and prevention (CDC), national center for health statistics (NCHS), bridged-race population estimates, United States July 1st resident population by state, county, age, sex, bridged-race, and hispanic origin. Compiled from 1990-1999 bridged-race intercensal population estimates (released by NCHS on 7/26/2004); revised bridged-race 2000-2009 intercensal population estimates (released by NCHS on 10/26/2012); and bridged-race Vintage 2014 (2010-2014) postcensal population estimates (released by NCHS on 6/30/2015). Available on CDC WONDER Online Database. Accessed at http://wonder.cdc.gov/bridged-race-v2014.html on Apr 15, 2016 1:00:23 PM
Age as a risk factor for severe manifestations and fatal outcome of falciparum malaria in European patients: observations from TropNetEurop and SIMPID Surveillance Data.
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